At a gathering of the University of Bristol Spelaeological Society in a pub in 2008, caver Charlie Self PhD student Gina Moseley a photograph of a cave in a limestone cliff just beyond the north-western edge of the Greenland ice sheet. Thought to be the northernmost cave in the world, it had been photographed from a US military aircraft in 1958, but never explored.

But Self also gave Moseley a report about calcite flowstone, formed by trickling water, that was found in a cave in north-eastern Greenland. Today, groundwater there is frozen in permafrost, so this flowstone must have come from a warmer, wetter time. A sample could provide a climate record exceeding the 130,000 years in Greenland ice cores, Moseley thought.

Starting in 2015, Moseley and her partner, photographer Robbie Shone, mounted four expeditions to Greenland, finally reaching that northernmost known cave, pictured above. While they didn’t find any flowstone there, they did obtain some from caves in north-eastern Greenland that showed the ground there hadn’t frozen – and vegetation had even grown – during three periods between 5 million and 10 million years ago.

It was a snapshot of a past world, but also a warning about how drastically global warming could alter Greenland in the future.

“This occurred in a world with CO2 levels that we already surpassed several decades ago,” says Moseley.

In the top image, expedition member Chris Blakeley stands in the entrance of the northernmost known cave, found on the Wulff Land peninsula, after rappelling down. Below, Blakeley explores a cave in north-eastern Greenland named Crystal Palace for the hoarfrost on its ceiling.

Below, Blakeley sits in Keyhole cave, named for the shape of its entrance, where the team collected two flowstone samples.

Shone calls the caves “time machines” that may be some of the last unexplored places on Earth, as there are no current Inuit settlements in north-eastern Greenland. But the team nonetheless witnessed the effects of human-made climate change there, including summer temperatures of 16°C.

“By early evening, after a full day of sunshine on the ice cap, the rivers were huge, they were bursting and they were brown,” says Shone. “You could physically see how much water had melted on the ice cap.”

Below, the team explores another cave in the area, after a 6-metre vertical climb to get into it. A huge coating of blue ice was found on the cave’s back wall.

In the final image, below, Blakeley and researcher Gabriella Koltai scramble to board a helicopter hovering near a cave in the Wulff Land peninsula before a storm arrives. The team named the cave R66 after the model of helicopter that rushed them out of there.

To the many problems caused by wildfires, add reduced solar generation and more use of fossil fuels as a result. A study of the 2023 Canadian wildfires has concluded that drifting smoke caused a 3 per cent drop in solar power generation in both Europe and North America, costing nearly $2 billion.

“It’s clear that we are facing a situation where this is going to keep happening,” says Iulian-Alin Roșu at the Technical University of Crete in Greece. “It seems like every year from now on, we are going to have some relatively significant Canadian wildfire events.”

Smoke from large wildfires in Canada can spread across much of the northern hemisphere, reducing how much sunshine reaches the ground. Last year, Roșu reported that so much smoke was released during the massive 2023 wildfires in Canada that it reduced summer temperatures across the hemisphere by nearly 1°C – which still wasn’t enough to stop 2023 being the hottest year on record, now surpassed by 2024.

He recently discussed his findings with fire expert at the University of East Anglia in the UK. “We were looking at pollution maps and Matthew, out of nowhere, says, well, hang on a second, I wonder what this does to solar power production,” says Roșu.

So Roșu, Jones and their colleagues got data on solar generation in North America and Europe and plugged it into the climate model Roșu used for his 2025 study. Their study takes into account the fact that the cooling effect of smoke slightly compensates for less sunshine by increasing the efficiency of solar panels – by 20 per cent in Europe, for instance.

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Based on electricity prices at the time, the team calculates that North America – mainly the US – lost $711 million, while Europe lost almost $1.17 billion, with Germany being hit hardest. The reason why Europe lost more is largely that electricity prices are higher there, says Roșu, plus most solar generation in the US is in southern and western states that were less affected by smoke.

The impact of the smoke was greater than the researchers expected, he says. “A whole bunch of solar power was not being produced, and that led to increased CO2 emissions, because obviously the rest of the energy industry had to compensate.”

“There needs to be more understanding of the fact that fire can affect pretty much everything: pollution, health, weather and even solar power,” he adds.

With smoke from Canada reaching Europe again this year, the same thing is happening again. “I have seen some relatively worrying data for this year as well,” says Roșu. But with the season still ongoing, he says it’s too early to compare with 2023.

A pyrocumulonimbus cloud, a looming thunderstorm generated by an intensely hot wildfire, has been observed with radar in France for the first time. These deadly “fire clouds” of rising hot air, smoke and moisture, which accelerate blazes with strong winds and soaring embers, are expected to become more common in Europe as wildfires there get bigger.  

“You have this tilted column that is sucking air and then propagating embers in front, and it also creates lightning. That’s another way of lighting up fuels in front of the fire, so these cells are unstoppable,” says at the University of Corsica, France. “You cannot stop a thunderstorm, and neither can you stop a firestorm, a strong pyrocumulonimbus.”

Alongside huge blazes in Spain, France has been suffering a wildfire in the Gironde region, which President Emmanuel Macron has called the country’s most severe crisis since the second world war. The fire has burned more than 420 square kilometres since last week, coming within 15 kilometres of the city of Bordeaux and forcing around 220,000 people to evacuate. It generated a pyrocumulonimbus cloud on 24 July and another on 25 July, according to regional officials. Embers and lightning ignited new fires around the original inferno.

“We faced another firestorm, the same incredible, unprecedented, unknown phenomenon as the one we saw on Friday, when we realised we were entering a new dimension,” Gironde prefect Sophie Brocas told journalists.

It is a miracle this pyrocumulonimbus-fuelled fire hasn’t claimed any casualties, Filippi says.

Sometimes the “fire-breathing dragon of clouds”, pyrocumulonimbus are typically generated by massive wildfires in the forests of North America, Siberia and Australia. They’ve spurred on infamous fires like the that killed 173 people in Australia in 2009 and the conflagration that in 2016. Canada’s record-breaking wildfires in 2023 142 of these storms.

In Europe, however, there have been only a handful of confirmed pyrocumulonimbus in Spain and Portugal, including one during Portugal’s devastating Pedrógão Grande fire in 2017, which destroyed hundreds of homes and killed 66 people. But that appears to be changing.

“You have to have two things happening at the same time: an extreme heat source and an unstable atmosphere that interacts with the fire,” says at the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts. “If… the heat from the fire increases, like it’s projected to increase from our studies, then yes, you should see more of these events.”

This firestorm begins to take shape when temperatures as high as 800°C send a plume of smoke into the sky. As the hot air rises and cools, water vapour condenses onto the ash to form pyrocumulus clouds, like the fluffy white clouds you might see on a summer day, only brown or grey.  

If the plume is hot enough and the atmosphere is unstable enough, the cloud can keep rising to reach the upper troposphere at 10,000 metres, the cruising altitude of a passenger plane. It sometimes reaches the stratosphere, as much smoke as a moderate volcano. It becomes a pyrocumulonimbus when the static electricity from colliding ice particles sparks thunder and lightning.

Although rain from the cloud often evaporates in the hot air, this kind of thunderstorm nonetheless creates its own weather system. The cloud’s updraft pulls in air, fanning the flames with winds reaching 160 kilometres per hour and accelerating the fire’s spread by up to five times, according to Filippi.

Meanwhile, strong downdrafts create erratic gusts that carry embers off to start new fires. Dozens of lightning strikes can blazes as far as 100 kilometres ahead of the main fire. It can also create fire tornadoes of twisting flames. As the winds, embers and lightning strengthen and expand the wildfire, it releases more heat and smoke, a feedback loop that can amplify the rising cloud for many hours.

Both wind shear higher in the atmosphere and erratic gusts at the ground can take the fire in unpredictable directions, making it nearly impossible to contain its acceleration or plan targeted evacuations.

“The fire front is constantly shifting. We cannot fight it directly. It’s a David-versus-Goliath scenario,” Eric Brocardi of the National Firefighters Federation of France local media about the Gironde fire on 2 August.  

Wildfire plumes have expanded in height since 2003 in the western US, creating more pyrocumulonimbus clouds, an increase that’s projected to continue.

Pyrocumulonimbus will have more chances to occur in Europe as well, as the fastest-warming continent experiences more extreme heat, such as the record-breaking heatwave in June, and wildfires. could also contribute, such as when a wet spring last year boosted vegetation growth on the Iberian peninsula, only for record summer heat to dry it out. This led to Europe’s worst-ever wildfires, including a in Spain.

“We need to adapt, so get prepared,” Filippi says. “Burn-proof and reduce the amount of fuel around your house.”